Principles of Epidemiology Causality Bradford Hill Criteria Causal diagrams Study design Observational studies overview Cohort studies (prospective and retrospective) Case-control studies Cross-sectional studies Ecologic studies Experimental studies overview Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Quasi-experimental designs Difference-in-difference Measurements in epidemiology Measures of disease frequency Prevalence measures Incidence measures Measures of Association Measures of Potential Impact Bias overview Selection bias Information or measurement bias Reporting and Publication bias Length-time and lead-time bias Observer effect Confounding Types of confounding Statistical methods to control for confounding Design approaches to address confounding Sensitivity analysis: evaluating the impact of confounding Residual confounding Effect modification and interaction Mediation Ethical and legal considerations Informed consent Privacy and confidentiality of health data Ethical review boards and their role Share this: Click to share on X (Opens in new window) X Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit Click to print (Opens in new window) Print Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window) Email